Byzantium was originally settled by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after their king Byzas. The name "Byzantium" is a transliteration of the original Greek name Βυζάντιον; (Demotic Modern Greek spells this Βυζάντιο, pronounced IPA /vi.ˈza.ⁿdjo/).
After siding with Pescennius Niger against the victorious Septimius Severus the city was besieged by Rome and suffered extensive damage in AD 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus and quickly regained its previous prosperity.
The location of Byzantium attracted Constantine the Great and in 330 he refounded it as Nova Roma, or Constantinoupolis after himself (Constantinople, Greek: Konstantinoupolis or Κωνσταντινούπολις) after a prophetic dream was said to have identified the location of the city. The name Nova Roma never came into common use. The Eastern Roman Empire which had its capital in Constantinople from then until the conquest of the empire in 1453, has often been called the Byzantine Empire or Byzantium by modern scholars.
The combination of imperialism and location would play an important role as the crossing point between two continents (Europe and Asia), and later a magnet for Africa and others as well, in terms of commerce, culture, diplomacy, and strategy. At a strategic position, Constantinoupolis was able to control the route between Asia and Europe, as well as the passage from the Mediterranean Sea to the Efxinos Pontos (Black Sea).
Constantinople was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. In Byzantine times the Greeks called Constantinople i Poli ("The City"), since it was the centre of the Greek world and for most of the Byzantine period, the largest city in Europe. It was captured and sacked by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 and then re-captured by Nicaean forces under the command of Michael VIII Palaeologus in 1261.
With the fall of Rome and the Western Roman Empire, the name of the city was changed to Constantinople and became the sole capital of what historians now call the Byzantine Empire. This empire was distinctly Greek in culture, and became the centre of Greek Orthodox Christianity after an earlier split with Rome, and was adorned with many magnificent churches, including Hagia Sophia, once the world's largest cathedral. The seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople, spiritual leader of the Eastern Orthodox Church, remains.
On 29 May 1453 Sultan Mehmet II (1451 – 81), known as “the Conqueror”, entered Constantinople after a 54 – day siege during which his cannon had torn a huge hole in the Walls of Theodosius II. Mehmet’s first task was to rebuild city the wrecked city, which would later become known as Istanbul. The Grand Bazaar and Topkapı Palace were erected in the years following the Muslim conquest. Religious foundations were endowed to fund the building of mosques such as the Fatih and their associated schools and baths. The city had to be repopulated by a mixture of force and encouragement. People from all over the empire moved to Istanbul, and Jews, Christians and Muslims lived together in a cosmopolitan society.
Mehmet and his successors pushed the frontiers of the empire across the Middle East and into Europe. In the early 16th century, Selim I (1512 – 20) conquered Egypt and assumed the title of caliph, as well as establishing the Ottomans as a sea power. He is also notorious for killing all his male relatives bar one son, to ensure that there were no rivals for the succession.
Selim’s one surviving son was Süleyman I, “the Magnificent” (1520 – 66), under whose rule the Ottoman Empire reached its maximum extent. At the time of his death the empire stretched from Algiers to the Caspian Sea and from Hungary to the Persian Gulf. Much of western Europe only just escaped conquest when an Ottoman army was driven back from the gates of Vienna in 1529. Süleyman’s reign was a time of great artistic and architectural achievements. The architect Sinan designed many mosques and other great buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics and calligraphy also flourished.
Alman (German Fountain) in 1890s. |
Yeni Cami mosque and Eminönü bazaar in 1890s. |
A Street in Eyüp in 1890s. |
Galatasaray. |
Galata Bridge. |
Bosphorus. |
Beyoğlu. |
Tophane Place in 1890s. |
Sufi orders which were so widespread in the Islamic world and who had many followers who had actively participated in the conquest of the city came to settle in the capital. During Ottoman times over 100 Tekkes were active in the city alone. Many of these Tekkes survive to this day some in the form of mosques while others as museums such as the Jerrahi Tekke in Fatih, the Sunbul Effendi and Ramazan Effendi Mosque and Turbes also in Fatih, the Galata Mevlevihane in Beyoglu, the Yahya Effendi Tekke in Besiktas, and the Bektashi Tekke in Kadıköy, which now serves Alevi Muslims as a Cem Evi.
When the Republic of Turkey was founded in 1923, the capital was moved from Istanbul to Ankara. Until that time, except for the Crusader invasion between 1204-1261, Istanbul had continously been an imperial capital for 1610 years. (313 - 1923)
In the early years of the republic, Istanbul was overlooked in favor of the new capital Ankara but, during the 1950s and 1960s, Istanbul underwent great structural change. The city's once numerous and prosperous Greek community, remnants of the city's Greek origins, dwindled in the aftermath of the 1955 Istanbul Pogrom with most Greeks in Turkey leaving their homes for Greece.
In the 1950s the government of Adnan Menderes sought to develop the country as a whole and new roads and factories were constructed throughout the country. Wide modern roads were built in Istanbul but some, unfortunately, were at the expense of historical buildings within the city.
During the 1970s the population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were constructed on the outskirts of the city. This sudden sharp increase in the population caused a rapid rise in housing development (some of poor quality resulting in great death and injury during the frequent earthquakes that hit the city) and many previously outlying villages became engulfed into the greater metropolis of Istanbul. Many Turks who have lived in Istanbul for over 30 or more years can still recollect how areas such as large parts of Maltepe, Kartal, Pendik, and others were green fields when they were young. Other areas such as Tuzla were nothing more than sleepy villages.
Istanbul encloses the southern Bosphorus which divides it into a western, European and into an eastern, Asiatic area. The Golden Horn, a Bosphorus bay running to the west, separates the European part into a southern, between Marmara Sea and Golden Horn lying peninsula which is the historical Istanbul and the northern quarter to the historical Galata. Both to the west, to the north and the east Istanbul exceeds far over historical quarters. In the southeast the Prince's Islands belonging to Istanbul lie. The city boundaries cover a surface of 1.538,77 km². The Metropol region (= province Istanbul) has a surface of 5,220 km².
Istanbul is situated near the North Anatolian fault line, which drags on from the northern Anatolia to the Marmara Sea. Two tectonic plates, the African and the Eurasian, push here together. This fault line is responsible for several deadly earthquakes in the region in contemporary history. In 1509, a catastrophic quake caused a tsunami which broke over the sea-walls of the city destroying over 100 mosques and killing 10,000 people. In the year of 1766 the Eyüp mosque was completely destroyed. 1894 quake collapsed many parts of covered bazaar. Reasons for the devastating effects are still the close settlement and poor construction of buildings. Earth scientists prognosticate a further quake starting from strength 7.0 on the Richter scale until 2025.[3] A devastating quake in August 1999 in Kocaeli left 18,000 dead and in the winter of 2001 in the province of Afyon 41 people died.[4] [5]
Temperate-Continental
The city has hot and humid summers with cold, rainy and often snowy winters.
Yearly precipitation for Istanbul averages 870 mm. Humidity is often rather high
which can make temperatures feel much warmer or colder than they actually are.
The average maximum temperature during the winter months varies between 7°C (46°
F) and 10°C (51° F). Snowfall is common and can occasionally be heavy. It is
most likely to occur between the months of December and March. The summer months
of June through September bring average daytime temperatures of 28 °C (82 °F).
The warmest month is July with on the average 23.2 degrees Celsius, coldest January with 5.4 degrees Celsius on the average. The highest recorded temperature in Istanbul is 40.5 °C (105 °F) (August 2000), with the lowest being –16.1 °C (3 °F) (February 1927). The weather becomes slightly cooler as one moves toward eastern Istanbul.
The city is quite windy, having an average wind speed of 17 km/h (11 mph).
Summer is by far the driest season, although there is no real summer drought such as occurs further west, and so the climate cannot be considered truly Mediterranean.
| Month | Maximum Temperature | Lowest temperature | Days with Rain | Sunshine | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Average | Absolute | Average | Absolute | (day.) | ||
| January | 9 | 19 | 3 | − 13 | 18 | 2.6 |
| February | 9 | 24 | 2 | − 16 | 15 | 3.3 |
| March | 11 | 27 | 3 | − 11 | 14 | 4.4 |
| April | 16 | 33 | 7 | − 2 | 9 | 6.6 |
| May | 21 | 34 | 12 | 2 | 8 | 8.9 |
| June | 26 | 37 | 16 | 6 | 5 | 10.8 |
| July | 29 | 39 | 18 | 11 | 4 | 11.7 |
| August | 29 | 41 | 20 | 10 | 3 | 11.3 |
| September | 25 | 38 | 15 | 6 | 6 | 8.5 |
| October | 21 | 33 | 12 | 3 | 10 | 6.2 |
| November | 15 | 27 | 9 | − 7 | 13 | 4.6 |
| December | 11 | 22 | 5 | − 12 | 17 | 2.3 |
Quarters of Istanbul are divided into three ranges:
Cultural activity, tourism and commerce will continue to be important to the life of the city. However, population growth, traffic, preventing disorganized housing, restoration of historic buildings and planning a 3rd motorway transition to the Bosphorus continue to be issues. Daily life in Istanbul is colorful and vibrant and continues side by side with many carefully protected Roman, Byzantine and Turkish monuments. Istanbul is often considered the capital of Turkey in terms of commerce, entertainment, culture, education, shopping, tourism and art. More than half of the population lives and works on the European side. The large number of people living in the residential areas on the Anatolian side use bridges and ferries to commute to work in a city that has been the most popular stop for voyagers throughout history.
Istanbul is becoming increasingly colorful in terms of its rich social, cultural and commercial activities. Along with Turkish restaurants, Far eastern and other cuisines are growing in number alongside many newly opened restaurants. While world famous pop stars fill stadiums, activities like opera, ballet and theatre continue throughout the year. During seasonal festivals world famous orchestras, chorale ensembles, concerts and jazz legends can be found often playing to a full house. Shows are hosted at a number of locations including historical sites such as Hagia Irene, Rumeli Fortress, Yedikule, the courtyard of Topkapı Palace, and Gülhane park; as well as the Ataturk Cultural center, Cemal Reºit Rey concert hall and other open air and modern theatre halls. For those who like night life, there are a number of clubs, discos, bars, pavillions and restaurants with live music. The clubs, restaurants and discoteques increase in number and move to open air spaces in the summer.
"There, God and human, nature and art are together, they have created such a perfect place that it is valuable to see."
The urban landscape is constantly changing. Traditionally Ottoman buildings were built of wood. In the last decades, numerous tall structures were built around the city to accommodate a rapid growth in population. Surrounding towns were absorbed into Istanbul as the city grew rapidly outwards. Infrastructure successes since the mid 1990's include the resolution of the garbage problem, improved traffic conditions and improved air quality due to the increased use of natural gas. Nevertheless, air and water pollution created by the numerous factories, motor vehicles and private households as well as noise pollution created by traffic continue to concern the population of Istanbul. Diseases such as bronchitis and asthma are far more common among the inhabitants of the city's Gecekondu areas largely because of these poorer, densely populated areas' proximity to industry.
Traditional beach resorts had gradually disappeared due to water pollution. Recently, however, old places have reopened in the city. The most popular places within the city are in Bakirkoy (Bakırköy), Kucukcekmece (Küçükçekmece), Sariyer (Sarıyer) and the Bosphorus. Outside the city are the Marmara Sea's Prince's Islands, Silivri and Tuzla as well as Kilyos and Sile (ªile) on the Black Sea. The Prince's Islands (Prens Adaları) are a group of islands in the Marmara sea, south of the quarters Kartal and Pendik. Pine and stone-pine wooden art nouveau-style summer mansions from the turn of the twentieth century, horse-drawn carriages (motor vehicles are not permitted) and fish restaurants make them a popular trip destination. They can be reached by ferry boats and high-speed ferries (Deniz otobüsü) from Eminönü and Kartal. Of the nine islands, four are settled. Sile (ªile) is a distant and well-known Turkish seaside resort on the Black Sea, 50 kilometers from Istanbul. Unspoiled white sand beaches can be found outside of Sile. Kilyos is a small calm seaside resort not far from the northern European entrance of the Bosphorus at the Black Sea. The place has good swimming possibilities and has became popular in the last years among the inhabitants of Istanbul as a place for excursions. Kilyos offers a beach park with (fish) restaurants and discotheques.
Newsweek magazine recently named Istanbul the "hippest city of Europe", referring to it as the "Turkish delight":
After so many decades of trying to become Western, Istanbul glories in the rediscovery of a modern identity. European or not, it is one of the coolest cities in the world. There is such richness, the city is still thickly atmospheric, with bazaars, Byzantine churches and Ottoman mansions pretty much everywhere.
The urban landscape of Istanbul is shaped by many communties. Important religious minorities include Greek Orthodox Christians, Armenian Christians, and Sephardic Jews. In Istanbul small boroughs are inhabited by ethnic Armenians, Jews and Greeks. In some quarters, such as Kuzguncuk, an Armenian Church sits next to a synagogue, and on the other side of the road a Greek-Orthodox church is found beside a mosque. The seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople, spiritual leader of the Greek Orthodox Church is in Istanbul. Also based here are, the archbishop of the Turkish-Orthodox community, an Armenian archbishop and the Turkish Grand-Rabbi.
The city is traditionally the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarch, to some orthodox churches and seat of an Armenian archbishop as well as the archbishop of the Turkish-Orthodox community. The everyday life of the Armenian and Greek minorities still living in Istanbul changed after the First World War due to discrimination and constant repression. In 1942 came the introduction of a special wealth tax (varlik vergisi). In 1964, all Greeks (around 100,000) without Turkish citizenship residing in Turkey were deported. Today, most of Turkey's Greek and Armenian minorities live in or near Istanbul. Beside the Levantines, who are the descendants of European traders who had started trading outposts in the Ottoman Empire, there is also a small, scattered number of Bosphorus Germans. A number of places reflect past movements of different peoples into Istanbul, most notably Arnavutköy (Albanian village), Polonezköy (Polish village) and Yeni Bosna (New Bosnia).
The Sephardic Jews have lived in the city for over 500 years. They fled in 1492 from the Iberian peninsula, when they were forced to convert to Christianity after the fall of the Moorish Kingdom of Andalucia. Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II (1481-1512) sent a sizable fleet to Spain in order to save the Sephardic Jews. More than 200,000 fled first to Tangier, Algiers, Genova and Marseille, later to Salonica and finally to Istanbul. The Sultan granted over 93,000 of these Spanish Jews to take refuge in the Ottoman Empire. In Istanbul more than 20,000 Sephardic Jews still remain today. Altogether 20 synagoges are to be found in the city, the most important of them being the Neve Shalom Synagogue ianugurated in 1951, in the Beyoglu quarter. The Turkish Grand Rabbi in Istanbul (currently Ishak Haleva) presides over community affairs.
The population of the metropolis more than tripled during the 25 years between 1980 and 2005. Roughly 70% of all Istanbulites live in the European section and around 30% in the Asian section. Due to high unemployment in the southeast of Turkey, many people from that region migrated to Istanbul, where they established themselves in the outskirts (Gaziosmanpaºa, Ziya Gökalp). . Migrants, predominantly from eastern Anatolia arrive in Istanbul expecting improved living conditions and employment, which usually end with little success. This results each year with new Gecekondus at the outskirts of the city, which are later developed into neighbourhoods and integrated into the greater metropolis.
The following overview shows the numbers of inhabitants by year. Population tallies up to 1914 are estimated with variations of up to 50% depending upon researcher. The numbers from 1927 to 2000 are results of censuses. The numbers of 2005 and 2006 are based on computer simulation forecasts. The doubling of the population of Istanbul between 1980 and 1985 is due to a natural increase in population as well as the expansion of municipal limits.
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Istanbul was a cultural and ethnic melting pot. As a result, there are many historical mosques, churches, synagogues, and palaces to visit in the city.
The Egyptian Obelisk (The Obelisk of Theodosius I) |
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Underground cisterns underneath the Topkapi Palace |
Maiden's Tower is sometimes considered as the symbol of Istanbul. |
Alphabetical Order
The cross-continent European walking route E8 trail begins/ends here, running 4700 km to Cork, Ireland.
Istanbul holds some of the finest institutes of higher education in Turkey, including a number of public and private universities. Most of the reputable universities are public, but in recent years there has also been an upsurge in the number of private universities.
Among the well-known public institutions are Istanbul Technical University (Istanbul Teknik Üniversitesi (İTÜ)), Bosphorus University (Boğaziçi Üniversitesi), Galatasaray University, University of Istanbul (İstanbul Üniversitesi (İÜ)), University of Marmara (Marmara Üniversitesi), Yildiz Technical University (Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi) and Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University (Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi).
Some of the private institutions include Istanbul Commerce University (İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi), Bahçeºehir University [6] (Bahçeºehir Üniversitesi), Koç University [7] (Koç Üniversitesi), Sabanci University (Sabancı Üniversitesi), Bilgi University (İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi), Istanbul Kultur University [8], Isik University (Iºık Üniversitesi),Yeditepe University (Yeditepe Üniversitesi), Fatih University (Fatih Üniversitesi), Maltepe University (Maltepe Üniversitesi), Kadir Has University (Kadir Has Üniversitesi), Haliç University (Haliç Üniversitesi), Dogus University (Doğuº Üniversitesi) and Beykent University (Beykent Üniversitesi).
Istanbul has always been the centre of the country's economic life because of its location at an international junction of land and sea trade routes. The economy of Istanbul stands solidly on two columns: nationally it dominates trade and it also has international significance. Istanbul employs 20% of Turkey's industrial labour and contributes 38% of Turkey's industrial workspace. The city generates 55% of Turkey's trade and 45% of the country's wholesale trade, and Istanbul generates 21.2% of Turkey's gross national product. Istanbul contributes 40% of all taxes collected in Turkey and produces 27.5% of Turkey's national product.
The economy in Istanbul has improved in recent years. The gross domestic product (GDP) grew by an average of 5% a year, since 1980. The Asian finanical crisis between July 1997 and the beginning of 1998 and the crisis in Russia between August 1998 and the middle of 1999 were felt in all areas of the economy, particularly among exports, and had negative effects on the economy. Despite this burden, in the middle of 1999 a slow reorganization of the economy of Istanbul was observed, until the earthquake centered in Kocaeli on 17 August 1999 caused the second large economic shock for the city from the east after the crisis in Russia. Apart from the capital and human losses caused by the disaster, a decrease in GDP of approximately up to two per cent was observed.
Today, Istanbul is the industrial center of Turkey. Many of Turkey's major manufacturing plants are located in the city. Istanbul and its surrounding province produce cotton, fruit, olive oil, silk, and tobacco. Food processing, textile production, oil products, rubber, metal ware, leather, chemicals, electronics, glass, machinery, paper and paper products and alcoholic drinks are among the city's major industrial products. The city also has plants that assemble automobiles and trucks.
Both Turkish and international investors have made Istanbul an important commercial metropolis. One of the most important industries is tourism: there are a large number of hotels in Istanbul catering to tourists and visiting professionals.
The city is an important junction for national and international long-distance traffic.
Istanbul has two international airports: The larger is Ataturk International, in Yeºilköy, 24 kilometers from the city center which used to be at the edge of the European part but is now inside the city, the more modern is the airport Sabiha Gökçen Airport, 20 kilometers east of the Asiatic side and 45 kilometers east of the European city centre.
Sirkeci station is the final stop for all railways on the European side. Only one long-distance route runs daily (to Bucharest). Beyond the Bosphorus at the Haydarpasa station lines run several times daily to Ankara and more rarely to other destinations in Anatolia. For now the two stations are connected by ferry across the Bosphorus. The Marmaray project will eventually connect the rail system with an interchange station that will also connect with the metro system.
The E5, E90 and Trans European Motorway (TEM) are the three main roads leading to Turkey from the European border and the innercity borders to the east. The motorway net around Istanbul is well developed and is constantly being extended. Motorways lead to Ankara and Edirne. There are also 2 expressways circling the city. The older one called E5 is mostly used for inner city traffic while the more recent TEM highway is mostly used by intercity or intercontinental traffic. The Bosphorus Bridge and the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge respectively, provide the Bosphorus Strait passesages for these two highways.
The port of Istanbul is the most important in the country. The old port at the Golden Horn serves primarily for personal navigation. Regular services as well as cruises exist to several ports such as Pireaus (Greece) and Greek islands, Dubrovnik (Croatia), Venice, Naples (Italy), Marseille (France), Haifa (Israel) in the Mediterranean Sea, and also Odessa (Ukraina) in Black Sea.
Main article: Public transport in Istanbul
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Istanbul is the homeland of many soccer teams; among them are three first division teams: Besiktas JK, Galatasaray SK and Fenerbahçe SK.
Galatasaray SK currently plays its European fixtures in the Ataturk Olympic Stadium. This was built for Turkey's bid to host the Olympic Games. Despite Turkey failing to win its bid, the stadium now hosts football matches, was awarded the accolade of five-star stadium in 2004, and is now the second largest football stadium in Europe. The Atatürk Stadium hosted the 2005 Champions League final between Liverpool and AC Milan, which is widely regarded as one of the greatest Champions League finals of all time.
Istanbul hosts Formula 1 Turkish Grand Prix, MotoGP Grand Prix of Turkey, FIA World Touring Car Championship, GP2 and Le Mans Series 1000 km races at the Istanbul Park.
Other sports like basketball and volleyball are very popular. In addition to Fenerbahçe, Galatasaray and Beºiktaº, which field teams in multiple sports, other clubs have high profiles in those sports—among them Turkey's most prominent basketball clubs, Efes Pilsen and Ülker; and the Eczacibasi (Eczacıbaºı) and Vakifbank volleyball clubs. Golf, shooting, riding and tennis gain ever more significance. For Aerobic, bodybuilding and gymnastic equipment, numerous fitness clubs are available. Paintball belonges to the new kinds of sport and is already represented in two large clubs in the proximity of Istanbul. Eastern kinds of sport such as Aikido and Yoga have become more popular in recent years. There are several centers in the city where they can be exercised.
Istanbul has included in many digital media such as:
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